Best Methods for Oil Clean Ups

Abstract There have been a lot of reports covering issues related to oil spills in the world. The reports cover issues ranging from causes of oil spills to the effects of oil spills on the environment. This report is also covering some of the issues in a different perspective. The body of the report deals mainly with methods of controlling and cleaning up oil spills especially in the oceans.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Best Methods for Oil Clean Ups specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Since the beginning of petroleum industry, and subsequent occurrence of oil accidents, several methods have been developed to aid in the clean up of the mess. Oil companies are faced with the challenge of cleaning up the mess in the recent past. This is because environmental groups, animal rights groups and human rights activists together with other agencies have emerged with policies which can be quite detrimental to the smooth running of the companies that violate those policies. Although there are different methods of cleaning up oil spillage, advancement of these methods should be done in order to cope with the increasing challenges. A good example given in this report is the recent oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico. The challenges faced by BP Oil Company attests to the fact that advanced technological input is needed in this area. The overwhelming task of solving the problem from its source proved to be a daunting task to the experts. Although it was a success, this incident left a negative mark on the environment that will not be forgotten for years to come. At the end of this study, the causes and methods of cleaning up oil spills will be crystallized. The effectiveness of these methods will also be known and the need for better facilities is greatly emphasized. Introduction An oil spill is a situation that occurs when crude oil is accidentally poured out so that its effects are directly felt by the environment. Oil accidents have been occurring since the beginning of the petroleum industry since it is quite impossible to mine oil without spilling some. The main causes of oil spills are accidents and operations at the port (Oracle, 2010). For instance collision is a familiar accident to mariners. Other accidents include explosions and groundings. Operations at the ports have also been causing small but several oil spills. Some of these operations include loading and discharging of oil.Advertising Looking for research paper on other technology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Basically there are two kinds of oil spills. One kind is the one that occurs on land. Land oil spills usually occur in confined localities. Thus they are easily contained whenever they occur. Also, they do not cause much alarm since the situation is usually localized. In this situation, pollution is also localized hence clean up is easy and the e ffects are not adverse. On the other hand, marine oil spills are quite familiar and thus infamous. Sine water moves with current, marine oil spills tend to spread over large areas thus causing far reaching environmental degradation. Oil spills in the oceans have been known to occur in different ways. The main causes of oil spills in marine environment are tankers. Tankers are large water vessels used to transport enormous volumes of crude or refined oil. When an accident occurs involving a tanker, it will cause it to release its contents into the sea thus causing an oil spill. Pipelines are also other source of oil spills in marine environment. When a pipeline is damaged crude or refined oil will be released into the sea causing similar damage to the environment. Thus the main sources which lead to the release of oil into the ocean are related to transport of oil. Offshore drilling does also cause oil spills when they explode or when there is an oil leakage. However, this is only bu t a small percentage of the total oil spills that occur in the world. As we move away from the causes of oil spills to the methods of cleaning up, we find that in between these situations, there is the environmental aspect. Environmental degradation occurs when oil is accidentally poured into water or ground. Sea dwelling animals will be affected to a great deal if measures are not taken to cub the situation. Shellfish, seals, corals and many others will experience difficulties in either breathing or in absorption of nutrients. Similarly plants and animals living at the shores will also experience a lot of problems in their livelihood. Turtles and birds in these areas are usually among the first animals to become victims of oil spills. In addition oil spills cause a lot of financial loss to the company in terms of wastage. For these and many other reasons, clean up activities are needed in order to prevent or tame the issue of environmental degradation and to recover the oil from th e spill. There is currently a number of methods oil companies use for clean up purposes. The methods range from natural to artificial techniques, and to more advance mechanized techniques. This report tries to dissect through the range of methods oil companies can use during clean up activities.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Best Methods for Oil Clean Ups specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Causes of oil spills Oil spills are caused by many sources. These causes are: Accidents, whereby collision, hull failures and fires caused in the refineries and oil rigs can cause oil to spill over to the surroundings (Graham, 2010). Grounding is also another accident which is commonly experienced in the oil industry. This type of accident causes the greatest number of loss of oil whereby several hundreds of accidents have been known to cause loss of several hundreds of tones of oil. Operations of the routines in the port and terminals whereby small but several oil spills can occur while loading or discharging. This has been known to be the most common cause of oil spills (Graham, 2010). Factors affecting method of clean up of oil spills Several factors affect the choice of a clean up method. These factors include: Density of the oil in relation to water so that if the density of oil is considerably high, it will sink into the water. This will prompt the use of a method which can be able to separate water and oil using the physical attribute of density (Oracle, 2007). Temperature of water; if the temperature of water is high or increases, oil will tend to evaporate. Natural methods may be employed here. Hence methods that can separate water from oil in this temperature have to be used. Capacity of the oil spill; if the volume of the oil spill is high, more advanced techniques should be employed so that clean up and the recovery of the spilled oil may be quickened (Oracle, 2007). How near the spill is to the coast; if the oil spill is near to the coast, or it is in an enclosed area, methods to be used should be aimed at preventing the oil from reaching the continental shores. This will help in prevention against continental environment degradation so as not to affect birds and other animals inhabiting the coast. The methods to be used in this situation should also be aimed at reducing the impact of the spill to corals and other shallow water dwelling organisms. Wave action of the water mass; whereby methods to be used should be able to withstand the challenge of physical mixing of sea water and oil. These should be methods which are used to separate the oil from the water after the two have mixed. The weather, strength and direction of wind and currents; methods to be used here should include those that can withstand specific weather conditions while not effecting performance of their chores. Methods of clean up of oil spills may be natural or artificial. Artificial met hods may be low or highly technical. Less technical methods include skimming, burning of the oil, or even physically using containers to scoop it or prevent it from spreading. Highly technical approaches include the use of dispersants and the use of organic agents to break the oil down. All these techniques must be carefully studied before they are finally recommended to any kind of spill. Natural methods that use sunlight and wave action Presence of oil in water can be broken down to physically disintegrate it and make it easier to evaporate in the presence of sunlight (Davidson, Lee Cogswell). That is why some specialists usually ignore small oil spills that are susceptible to this natural method of clean up because their danger to the environment may be negligible. Since oil is less dense than water, it will float especially in the more dense marine water. Light crude oil can also float in fresh water. However, the heavier crude petroleum can sink especially in fresh water. If t he heavy oil sinks it mixes with water. This is because the oil gradually breaks down (Davidson, Lee Cogswell). If there are sands and other particles in the water, the mixture of crude oil and water and these particles will form tar balls (Clark, 2010). Tar balls are characterized by their small sizes, dark color and hard covering. But if they are to be broken, their inside is usually soft. They are often found separated from each other and scattered throughout the water. This is one of the reasons as to why tar balls are less risky to the environment than concentrated oil slicks. Other natural ways can be artificially induced. The use of sorbents (absorbents) has been applied lately in the exercise of oil clean up. A sorbent is a material which attracts and causes a liquid to adhere to its fabric. For instance human hair can be used in the clean up of oil spills. Certain companies make mats from human hair that has been donated. The mats can then be spread over an oil spill to se parate the oil from water. Good sorbents for this particular purpose are usually those sorbents that can attract oil and resist water.Advertising Looking for research paper on other technology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Use of dispersants Dispersants are mostly used in areas around the tropics. A dispersant is a chemical which when applied to a substance will physically break it down into smaller particles (Clark, 2010). Hence dispersants are used as catalysts in the physical breakdown of oil spills into smaller volumes so that the oil may be easily absorbed in the water (Hazen, 2010). The process uses the basic principle of physics that it is easier to dissolve small substrate particles into a solvent than larger particles (see appendix, fig 4). This principle holds because the smaller particles have increased surface area. This is because oil does not break down as quickly as such. Chemical dispersants can be deployed underwater near the source of the leaks in offshore oil rigs. This helps in preventing the crude oil from rising to the surface. Currently this method is used but it is still undergoing extensive studies in relation to its impacts on the deepwater ecology (Kaufman, 2010). However th is method is quite disadvantageous since the dispersants used are harmful to marine and aquatic organisms. In 2007, there was a research on the use of dispersants as methods of oil clean up. This study was actually done in Israel. It was revealed that the mixture of crude oil and dispersants is more dangerous to marine and aquatic organisms (Hazen, 2010). The actual studies showed that coral reefs would be better of in absorbing raw crude oil than this mixture. The other effect of dispersants is the likelihood of contamination of sea foods. However this issue is still being studied. Biological agents Biological agents are used to clean up crude oil that has already found its way to the shores. Oil leaks reach the shore when a tanker sinks, or when an oil refinery which is situated at the coast begins to leak. There are also some situations when oil spill tends to move towards the coastal regions. This prompts the use of biological agents. Biological agents are the microorganisms tha t are used to break down substances into organic or natural substances (Hazen, 2010). They are involved in either aerobic or anaerobic respiration to produce fatty acids and carbon dioxide. This method is used whereby when an oil spill occurs near a shoreline, fertilizers are applied on the oil. The purpose of the fertilizer is to speed up growth of microorganisms so as to aerobically or anaerobically manufacture organic components by the breakdown of this oil. Currently there are companies which sell microbes that eat oil. This process is called bioremediation (Miami herald, 2010). An example of some of the oil-eating microorganisms is Alkanivorax borkumensis. These are described as some of the smallest living organisms which can have a powerful impact on the prevention of oil slicks. These microbes occur in water naturally whereby they eat up oil in water to produce carbon dioxide as a bi product (Miami herald, 2010). Use of oil booms This is the most basic method to respond to an oil spill. A boom is a brightly colored long fabric (see appendix, fig. 3). It has a filler attached on its length and. It also has a heavy chain or ballast. The heave chain or ballast causes it to sink while the filler causes it to float on water. Its bright color enables the crew to recognize a break along its length and also helps in the recovery process. The surface of the boom is made so that splash-over may be reduced whereas the bottom part is made in a way that will prevent the captured oil from leaking back into the water (Graham, 2010). The method may however become difficult to use alone especially when the oil spill has been dispersed over a large area so that it becomes difficult for circular containment. The use of skimmers This technique is used to remove oil spills especially in slow moving waters, sheltered waters or at the shores. The oil must be at the surface. The main principle of operation of this method is the use of adhesive property of oil (see appendix, fi g. 1). In physics it is a well known fact that oil will stick to any surface passing though it. These machines employ gravity, suction and rotation as the main principle of mechanical operation for motion to be achieved (Graham, 2010). The working principles of the machines for the purposes are: It renders a continuous surface so that the spilled oil can cling to. The surface is then cleaned And the cycle is repeated. Skimmers come in various types which include: Belt skimmers Brush skimmers Mop skimmers and Floating solution skimmers. The use of separators Oil may be harbored in water as free oil, emulsified or even as dissolved oil. Free oil is the oil which exists in the size of 20 microns. Oil which is less than 20 microns is called emulsified oil while dissolved oil has completely dissolved in water. The oil globules are moved to the surface of the separator vertically by virtue of their density compared to the density of water (see appendix fig. 2). The separators use prin ciples of centripetal and centrifugal forces to separate oil from the water (Graham, 2010). The mixture of oil and water is spun so that they may separate since they have different densities. When the fluid in question enters the separator, a strong current is created. This current causes outflow of higher density water while the lower density oil sucks in the separator. At the end of this pipe, the water and the oil are collected separately (Graham, 2010). It is worth noting that oil spill clean up is never an easy task. Due to this reason, a combination of two or more of the methods discussed above becomes necessary. For instance when there is a large oil slick which threatens the coast, the combined use of booms and dispersants is employed to quicken the clean up. Oil leaks which threaten to infiltrate the coast or those which occur at the coast are usually trickier to deal with. These situations therefore, will require delicate methods to do the clean up (Clark, 2010). Another w ay which can help during the clean up process is drilling a well near the oil leak. This helps relieve the pressure of the gushing oil which in turn reduces the volume of the oil spill. The methods has been used lately by the BP company in the recent clean up of the gulf oil leak in the Mexican coast (BBC, 2010). Recommendations and conclusions As it has been seen in the study, recommendations on the advancement of technology to solve this issue have to be considered. Better tankers need to be designed and built in order to prevent oil spills. Better drilling machines which are more resistant to breakage should be invented. High quality pipes that are more resistant to corrosion should be manufactured to prevent oil leakages. Minimization of oil spills during discharge and loading should be enhanced. High tech facilities should be employed in clean ups should the incidences occur. In conclusion, this project has highlighted the main types of oil spills and how the oceanic oil spills can be cleaned up. These main types are oceanic oil spills and land oil spills. From the report it is evident that oil spills on land are more manageable than oil spills in the oceanic fronts. Oceanic oil spills cause a great environmental hazard hence cleans up exercise needs to be followed immediately in occurs. The methods of cleaning up oil spills in the ocean are grouped into natural methods and artificial methods. Natural methods involve the use of sunlight, wind waves and ocean currents to oblige dissolution of the oil. Artificial methods include the use of machinery such as booms, separators, skimmers and dispersants for oil clean ups. The input of organic agent into this exercise is also grouped under this category (Hazen, 2010). As a summary to the aims of this report, the causes of oil spills, clean up methods and analysis of each method discussed in this report is aimed at creating awareness. This awareness will impart on the concerned parties to enhance their goals suc h that every individual concerned or affected will not be victimized so as not to compromise their rights. APPENDIX: Figures of instrumentation methods used in cleaning up oil spills Figure 1: Diagram showing the types of skimmers Source: Graham, P (2010) Figure 2: Diagram of a separator used in cleaning oiled water Source: Graham, P (2010) Figure 3: Boom method Source: Graham, P (2010) Figure 4: Use of airplane to apply dispersant to an oil spill Source: Graham, P (2010) Reference List Clark, J. (2010). How Stuff Works, How do you clean up an oil spill? Web. Davidson, W, Lee, K Cogswell, A. (2006), Oil spill response: A global perspective. Published by Springer, 2006, pp 206-208. Graham, P. (2010). Deep Sea Oil Spill Cleanup Techniques: Applicability, Trade-offs and Advantages. Web. Hazen (2010), Interview with Science News, Caution Required for Gulf Oil Spill Clean-Up, Bioremediation Expert Says, 1995-2010. Kaufman, L (2010). The New York Times. New Technique Holds Hope for O il Spill Cleanup  Published: May 1, 2010. Miami herald (2010). Gulf Oil Spill, oil-eating microbes a possible solution. Web. Oracle, (2007). Think quest, education foundation. Web. Russell, L (2010). Alternative Cleanup Methods for Cleaning Oil Spills in Water. Web. This research paper on Best Methods for Oil Clean Ups was written and submitted by user 3-D Man to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

GloFish- Genetically Modified Organisms Essays

GloFish- Genetically Modified Organisms Essays GloFish- Genetically Modified Organisms Paper GloFish- Genetically Modified Organisms Paper GloFish: More than Just glowing. What is a GloFish? GloFish is a genetically modified animal, a fluorescent zebra fish. It is made and then advertised by Yorktown technologies. It is a genetically modified organism (or GMO). The fish got the fluorescence from a red fluorescent protein from a sea anemone under the myosin light peptide 2 genes of zebra fish. The new green colored fish got is color from the extracted Green Fluorescent Protein that is taken from one Jellyfish species called Aequorea victoria. These fish are beneficial for a lot of things including the economy, environment and the entertainment of the people. Some genetically modified organism has contributed to help a global or local problem that is going on. The GloFish was originally developed so it can detect pollutants in water. This new revolution promises to help in the fght against diseases and helps improve peoples lives and environment. So GloFish is really helpful for the environment. It helps detect whenever there is something wrong in the water they are in. This creates a safer environment for living creatures. The fluorescent colors acts as a switch in the fish to activate some of its tissues. This will make it able to espond to the presence of chemicals. : These chemicals include heavy metals, toxins and estrogen through the variety of gene promoters. Scientists believe that they can have more colors in the fish that will allow easier detection for more variety of chemicals. These genetically modified fishes have been effective in the fght against pollution. As you know, all living organisms they depend on water and when a water source is polluted, it affects the organism itself. So this is really helping living things to sustain their life. How does this fish help economy? It helps the company; Yorktown technologies ain a lot of money. GloFish has a wide range of market throughout the US, and is basically sold everywhere. GloFish also has an environmental factor. GloFish causes no harm to the environment, even if they did the chances of it is very little. To make sure of it, the company gives each and every fish a testing before it is being sent out in public. If there is something in the making of the fish that failed and might have a cause in the environment it wont be put in public. A non-fluorescing fish will signal that the water is safe, while a fluorescing fish will signal trouble. This will help fght against pollution and countless diseases that came from a bad water source. In an ethical factor, GloFish are good. They infuse the protein into one of the first GloFishes as they were growing in the embryo. All the fish now, they inherit the fluorescence from their parents rather than having to insert the protein in the fish every time. The creatures from which the fluorescence protein has been taken form remains unharmed, as they only need a tiny bit of a sample from them. In some ways, genetically modified organisms are wrong. Some people believe that they are playing od by changing the features of the creatures that god created, but since this is for a good cause, and is popular to people and the environment it would have no ethical problems. In conclusion, GloFish is a genetically modified Zebra fish. These GloFishes got their fluorescence from the fluorescent color protein found in some sea animals, like Jellyfish. They are really colorful and sold as a pet to people. It is beneficial for water pollution. It helps detect if a water source is polluted or not. So, GloFish is a very helpful creature, which is both entertaining and helpful to mankind. Green Fluorescent Protein The GFP Site. Green Fluorescent Protein Conncoll, n. d. Web. 16 Sept. 2012. GLOFISH, THE FIRST GM ANIMAL COMMERCIALIZED: PROFITS AMID The GFP Site. CONTROVERSY. GLOFISH, THE FIRST GM ANIMAL COMMERCIALIZED: PROFITS AMID CONTROVERSY. ISB, n. d. web. 16 sept. 2012.. GloFish?„@ Fluorescent Fish Ethical Principles. GloFish?„@ Fluorescent Fish Ethical Principles. GloFish, n. d. Web. 16 Sept. 2012.. GloFish?„@ Fluorescent Fish FAQ. GloFish?„@ Fluorescent Fish FAQ. GloFish, n. d. Web. 16 sept. 2012. Gloash. Gloash. pagemac, 19 Feb. 2004. web. 20 sept. 2012.

Obesity and personal responsability Thesis Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Obesity and personal responsability - Thesis Example However, over the past few years, this move has not been much successful and hence the decision to encourage individuals towards taking personal responsibility for reducing obesity was taken up by the government. Based on this move of the government, this research paper is initiated and is aimed towards resolving answer to the research question which is as follows: Is obesity can be really termed as a personal responsibility of the individuals? The research paper will be validated if the government’s move towards redefining obesity as a personal responsibility can be evaluated to be successful. Finding Solution to the Research Question During the year 2004, the â€Å"Personal Responsibility in Food Consumption Act† was passed by the House of Representatives aiming towards prohibiting the lawsuits which are held by the restaurants and this would make the restaurants responsible for the obesity of their customers. After this act was passed, a representative from the Department of Health and Human Services insisted the government to include the factor of personal responsibility rather than bringing changes to the policies. The inclusion of the personal responsibility factor was then started to be initiated by the government through various inventiveness like that of launching various advertisement campaigns for encouraging people to be more mobile and suffer from less fatigue with lesser fatty foods. The government’s move towards the creation of healthy environment within the country was supported by various people as they were of the opinion that the motive was to encourage healthy options for appetite and not discouraging the freedom of selecting food. After the move of the government, various psychologists even indulged themselves in making the people learn the most effective techniques of changing their behavior towards consumption of healthy foods. But the success of these aspects is doubtful as evident from the lower percentage of people doing regular fitness exercise and they are merely involved in any structured activity. Since the government initiated the move towards inducing personal responsibility in obesity, is has been argued that the move cannot become successful. One important reason behind this is the people’s preferences for food based on the biological aspect inside their body. The biologically diverse pattern among the humans influences them to p refer certain food such as sweets to other foods such as spicy and vice versa with lots of other preferable choices (Sallis, â€Å"Obesity: Is personal responsibility the answer?†). There has been presence of various articles defining the people’s irresponsibility as the most vital reason of obesity since the government’s move towards either eradicating or reducing the same. With regards to these articles’ arguments, one might expect evidences of irresponsible nature of the people towards obesity. But the actual data reveals something opposite to the expectation. The following two figures explain the effectiveness of the government’s social move towards the aim of reducing obesity within the country. Figure 1: Trends in case of adolescent Figure 2: Trends in case of adults The above figures showing the trends in the movement of responsible nature

Use of Financial Ratios Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Use of Financial Ratios - Essay Example The paper is an attempt to analyze the accuracy of the statement of Lev and Sunder using some evidences taken from real world, especially by doing the cross sectional analysis of financial ratios. Use of Financial Ratios Financial ratios are used to measure a company’s financial condition or to analyze between two companies’ financial condition. All the stakeholders of the company have interest in company’s future, that is how the company would perform in the short term or long term future, how much it is secure to invest in the company, what type of change should be introduce so that the company can perform better. When an investor wants to take the decision to invest money, certainly he wants to invest it in the most effective company, the decision he can take by using the financial ratio analysis along with other type of analysis like qualitative analysis or other type of quantitative analysis. Critical Analysis Ratio analysis is a very widely used tool for analyze the financial stability of a firm. But there are certain problems arise when the analyst don’t take the associated factors in consideration. When the analyst is doing the performance analysis of two companies, they should remind that two companies can follow two different accounting policies. There is no single accounting standard which is being followed by the companies all over the world. (Fischer, Taylor and Cheng, 2008, p.505). The taxation rules of different states, different countries vary over the world. The inflation over the world is different. A multinational company has to face different taxation policy, different inflation over the world. So when a researcher is analyzing the performance of a company using ratio analysis, he should take these factors in account. There are also technical factors associated with the analysis. Many statistical tools which are being used in ratio analysis are based on the assumption that the data are normally distributed, but in reality that doesn’t happened. For identifying the financial indicators specifically for Critically Access Hospitals the Flex Monitoring Team used 114 financial ratios as their part of research. But they found many problems when research about the industry, like Hospitals with negative current Assets or negative current liabilities was excluded from the calculation of median, but that should be i ncluded when researching about the liquidity of the industry (Flex Monitoring Team, 2005, p.17-18). A research study was performed by taking 66 listed Malaysian firms’ data for the period 1980 to 1996. The forms were taken from 3 sectors industrial sector, mixed industry and combination of industrial and property sector. From the research it has been seen that only current asset percent was conformed to normal distribution. For doing the ratio analysis effectively three type of transformation techniques were used namely square, square root and natural log. When the square and square root property were used they were found as not effective, because the variables of the ratio analysis are not normally distributed. But natural log technique is proved effective by the researcher as the process considers that the data available is not normal. The researcher proved through the research that when a ratio analysis is being performed to analyze the performance of a company or comparab le analysis between two companies is done then they should address the proportionality effect on the ratio’s normality (Sori et al., 2006, p.71-81). From a survey done on U.S.A. firms it is clear a ratio can

Ethical And Social Issues Of The Healthcare Assignment

Ethical And Social Issues Of The Healthcare - Assignment Example From an ethics perspective, there are many in global society that adheres to the principles of deontology, an ideology that states it is the primary obligation of society members to sustain respect and commitment for others while working to effectively promote the well-being of humans (Mack, 1998). Additionally, Hume (2002) offers that it should be a guiding principle, abound of duty, that society should seek to maximize the utility of others, or the pursuit of maximizing one’s satisfaction and the fulfillment of their needs (Roberts, 2011). Furthermore, the United Nations has defined as inalienable protections from degrading or cruel treatment and the right to avoid exploitation by society or government. Individuals in the society that do not have adequate resources to receive adequate healthcare are exposed to cruelty as they are denied treatment and illness prevention services which have implications for sustaining their well-being and even social status. Healthcare should not be limited to individuals who have ample financial capital, which is the primary definition of privilege. Healthcare is a right because, without it, it exploits an individual, leaves a person in a degrading social position, and does not improve their personal utility which is a fundamental obligation of an ethical society. The United Nations, an organization consisting of 193 different member nations, has established a charter indicating a set of universal human rights that should ensure no individual in global society be exploited by society or government (Fomerand, 2009). Individuals who are denied health care are absolutely being exploited, oppressed by capitalistic systems in which the value of money outweighs the value of human life. With the majority of the world adopting the ideology of capitalism, a system in which capital goods and services (namely healthcare) are exchanged for the price (Degen, 2008), many individuals in society are compared to pricing mechanisms which forbid access to important services as a result of sustaining minimal resources.

Should obese people pay more for medical treatment

Should obese people pay more for medical treatment Obesity is an incredibly expensive disease, both for the patients and the hospitals. Aside from being a disease which is associated with many further complications and problems, which themselves lead to an increased cost, this disease also requires costly medication and specialised equipment for diagnosis and treatment. This results in a condition which has proven extremely costly to nearly all parties involved. It has been reported that  £47 million was spent purely on anti-obesity drugs in the fiscal year of 06 to 07.1 This figure, coupled with the fact that the prevalence of adult obesity in the U.K. is above 20 per cent and set to rise10, signifies the incredible cost associated with this disease and, in turn, highlights the growing problem of obesity on a social and economic scale. Its a problem that cant be ignored, and throughout the course of this paper I will attempt to weigh and evaluate both sides of the argument; Should obese people pay more for medical treatment?, in o rder to find a resolution. First, before jumping in to the crux of the question, it is imperative to establish the importance of the NHS as well as its core principles, in order to allow a fully in-depth analysis of the question at hand. The NHS, which is the primary healthcare provider in Great Britain, was set up in 1948 with one of its key principles being; the health service will be available to all and financed entirely from taxation, which means that people pay into it according to their means.2 It is important to stress the word all in the sentence. This word refers to the nation as a whole, regardless of their medical condition. The importance of the NHS clearly cant be stated enough, a nationwide health service which aims to treat all without directly taking money from the patients, is vital to maintaining the infrastructure of the country. It would seem then that the very nature of this question would oppose the core principles established in the set-up of the NHS, however in the recent light of the current economic situation and even proposed budget cuts3, the question raised could one day become a reality. It is important to first define and explain obesity ahead of tackling the ethical dilemma which is the title of this paper. One definition would simply be too much body fat on an individual, while this is somewhat accurate, it is also incredibly basic and not at all scientific. The BMI (body mass index) measurement is one of the most straightforward and useful techniques to establish the condition of obesity. The BMI is calculated by correlating a relationship between the height and weight of an individual, it is used by many organisations around the world such as WHO and NHS. The formula for calculating the BMI is: The results gained from the BMI can be classified in table 1 in order to specify the particular weight class of an individual. Classification BMI (kg/m2) Principal cut-off points Additional cut-off points Underweight Severe thinness Moderate thinness 16.00 16.99 16.00 16.99 Mild thinness 17.00 18.49 17.00 18.49 Normal range 18.50 24.99 18.50 22.99 23.00 24.99 Overweight à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥25.00 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥25.00 Pre-obese 25.00 29.99 25.00 27.49 27.50 29.99 Obese à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥30.00 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥30.00 Obese class I 30.00 34.99 30.00 32.49 32.50 34.99 Obese class II 35.00 39.99 35.00 37.49 37.50 39.99 Obese class III à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥40.00 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ¥40.00 Table 1. adapted from WHO While the use of the body mass index to calculate a persons weight class is used worldwide it has a fair number of shortcomings and flaws. For instance, this table of classification for BMI is not gender specific, so it is applied the same for both males and females equally, as well as this, it also doesnt account for weight distribution in individuals nor is it possible to consider bone or muscle mass, both of which are heavier than fat. These problems will hold more significance later in this essay while discussing how obesity should be defined. Obesity is caused by a variety of different factors. These include genetic susceptibility, socio-environmental factors, malfunctioning appetite regulation or may also be a cause of other diseases, such as Cushings syndrome.7 While it was previously thought that obesity was caused by a lack of willpower or a lifestyle choice, more recent studies have discovered that obesity is a chronic disease, involving a number of different biochemical and metabolic processes compared to individuals who arent obese.8 As stated previously, obesity is linked to many more serious health conditions and illnesses. Examples of these include diabetes mellitus, increased cholesterol, coronary heart disease and hypertension amongst many others.7 It is important to discuss the seriousness of these resulting conditions in order to fully comprehend the fatality of obesity. Diabetes mellitus (otherwise known as type II diabetes) is a serious condition which occurs when the body either does not produce enough insulin or the cells do not properly react to the insulin produced. This condition is said to affect approximately 2 million people across England and Wales, supposedly with a further 750, 000 unaware that they have this condition.4 Type II diabetes can also lead to kidney disease, nerve damage or even strokes. Coronary heart disease is another serious condition which can be caused because of obesity, which affects almost 300, 000 people a year in the U.K.11 There are multiple actions that can be taken in an attempt to treat or cure obesity. These include dietary therapy in order to regulate the number of calories taken in by an individual, and to maintain that over a long-term period. Other methods which may be used in conjunction with this may be increased exercise, to burn off calories, weight loss surgery, such as gastric band surgery or possibly drug therapy, which is often used as a last resort. It should be noted that not one of these methods are able to fully treat obesity alone, instead they must be used in unison depending on the severity of the disease and also the individuals diagnosed with them. It apparent that obesity is an incredibly complicated disease in terms of the causes, secondary factors and treatments, all of which contribute towards a confusion regarding the nature of obesity in the minds of the public as well as upping the cost due its many treatment techniques, none of which can be considered 100 per cent effective. This encompasses all of the aspects of the disease, which is often described as an epidemic, as its a growing concern, and the economic burden attached is sure to evoke strong opinions regarding the question of this paper. Now that the importance of the health care system has been established and the medical significance of obesity has been recognised, the essay question itself can be discussed. The initial views on this topic are polarising, with some instantly believing that the obese should pay more for the disease that theyve inflicted upon themselves, believing that it is unfair that the rest of the nation should pay the cost. Others believe that they shouldnt pay the financial cost, stating that the NHS was set up to help all, despite whether or not their condition is self caused. The argument can even be pushed further, extrapolating that smokers, drinkers and even athletes would also have to pay for the medical costs for their diseases or injuries, because, by that same logic, these conditions are also self inflicted. Although there are certainly some truths to be had in these two contrasting opinions, the two sides of the argument will be investigated and examined on the grounds of ethicality, societal and fairness in an attempt to bring about some form of a resolve on this controversial topic. One of the primary factors for the argument for obese people having to finance the treatment of their medical condition is that the disease they are burdened with is self inflicted, which is to say that they literally brought it on themselves, so should therefore have to deal with the consequences. While there is some validity in this argument, it isnt quite as black and white as it may initially sound, with many further complexities set to arise. Those that oppose this argument, are likely to call discrimination, as this ideology that separates a certain type of people from the rest and forces them pay more, which is highly unjust. Also, by this same reasoning, and in the issue of fairness, other patients with self inflicted disease should also have to pay more for conditions and illnesses which they have brought upon themselves. Such conditions would include lung cancer for smokers, liver disease for those who drink as well as injuries to sports players and athletes, as these are a ll, to some degree, self inflicted. A counter point to this counter point would be that smokers and drinkers already pay more through an increased tax for the drugs (i.e. cigarettes and alcohol) which lead to the individual diseases, so an alternative, or possibly in addition, to forcing obesity patients to have to pay for medical treatments would be to raise the tax on foods with an increased calorie count. This may also be used to deter away from choosing these unhealthy foods as well as generate income from those who cost the NHS so much money in its treatment for obesity. However, this would result that members in the public that fall in to the normal weight range would also have to pay the increased tax for these same foods, if they choose to occasionally indulge. This, at first glance, seems like a fair compromise, as smokers who dont cost the NHS with treatment for smoking related disease still have to pay the tax on cigarettes, however, the idea comes full circle that people who arent obese are still having to pay lifestyles of the obese, indirect as it may be, which is one of the main points evoking the question at hand. There is evidence to suggest that those who are obese are also more likely to be in lower paid jobs, and as such, have less expendable income. This may be because those with lower income are more likely to live in poorer areas and where healthier, more nutritious foods arent as readily available or outside of their budget. This may also be due to a discrimination present against people who are obese and overweight. Employers may be more likely to hire those who arent overweight as they see their ability to resist overeating or staying in shape as a good quality in what Acs, Lyles and Stanton (2007) describe as a willingness to delay gratification. Whatever the reason may be for the correlation between being overweight and having lower income, the fact remains that the lack of capital possessed by the obese population would prove to be incredibly troublesome if obese people were to finance their medical treatment in this manner. The case for increasing the tax of unhealthy foods may b e less applicable as it may push both healthy foods and unhealthy foods out of reach for poorer and obese population financially. To overcome this, healthier foods have to be made cheaper and more widespread, which may again be difficult given the nature to produce healthier and organic foods are likely to cost more. Even so, it would seem any loss made would surely help the NHS spend less on obesity, which, in the 2007, was estimated at  £4.2 billion.6 The basis for this particular argument is on essentially boils down to the thought that obese people are obese solely because of their own doings, which many people believe to be an accurate portrayal of reality. However, this statement by no means holds true to the complete population of obese people. There is a genetic link associated with obesity, with the inheritable risk of obesity thought to be approximately 30%.7 Many genes have been found that code for weight control hormones, and a defect in these genes may be passed on the offspring, thereby increasing the chance of obesity in that child.5 This would bring about many more questions and dilemmas concerning the topic at hand. For instance, what if the cause for obesity was mainly genetic as opposed to being environmental? Should the patient still pay more even though, by definition, this type of obesity isnt necessarily self-inflicted? Some may answer this question by stating that those with genetic factors shouldnt pay, howe ver, what if both social and biological factors play an equal role in the cause of an individuals obesity? Or, further expanding on the idea that those found to have the genetic link shouldnt pay, how would the obesity genes be examined in the patient? Genetic testing may be carried out, but performing these tests on the entire to obese population in order to determine who should pay these costs would itself be costly, therefore being counter-productive where one of the primary aims of the question raised is to cut back on money being spent. There are also further complications regarding this wide held belief that obesity is self-inflicted. Are cases where individuals are driven to high calorie, comfort foods because of bullying or depression, be considered self-inflicted? Also, who should pay the cost for cases of childhood obesity? While some may point the fingers at the parents, one would have to ask if that is at all fair. For instance, parents arent sentenced for the crimes that their children commit. Evidence exists which associates an addiction to eating (as well as other addictions) with mental illnesses.9 Should these cases also have to pay for medical treatment themselves? By this same merit should schizophrenics and patients with other mental conditions have to finance their treatment? There are a host of other problems and issues which are presented if this question is to be seriously considered. The question of affordability and practicality surely arises when applying the theoretical question to a real-world scenario. If obese patients were to pay directly for their medication, surgery or weight-loss programs then how much should be charged? It would surely have to be a fairly significant amount as the cost of obesity itself is already at an extremely costly figure.6 Having to pay for medical treatment may create a divide between patients who can and cant afford the costs, possibly adding another level of discrimination. And what if patients are unable to meet the expense of these bills? Should they be denied treatment? Anything beyond entertaining this idea would bring about huge moral dilemmas, as the hospitals would essentially be playing God, deciding who lives and dies, based purely on their financial background. Also, the practicality of such a situation is likely to bring up further complications, with one question being; how should it be charged? The NHS wasnt set up to accept payments in this particular manner, so how could this be accomplished? Would the patients need to pay before their medication or surgery? If so, and the patient does not pay, it will again bring up the concept of denying treatment to patients. There is also the possibility that patients would pay post-surgery. But if they refuse to pay or cant afford it, then some form of policing body would need to be enforced to ensure these payments are made. While this will cost more money, again a problem given the nature of the question is to decrease the money spent, it also sends out an image of the NHS reminiscent of some sort of mobster loan shark. Another issue when considering this subject is the concept of defining obesity. Earlier I have stated the use of the BMI system to define obesity the world over, as well as outlining its fundamental flaws. A concern with defining obesity with the use of the BMI scale is that the differences between being classified as overweight or obese may literally be a few inches in height or a few kilograms in weight. This may very well create scenarios where a person may be a few inches shorter than another who is the same weight having to pay more for treatment. This could possibly be countered by measuring obesity by more methods than simply BMI alone, which is currently in place to diagnose obesity by the NHS. Other methodologies may also have to be in place in order to diagnose or differentiate between different classes of obesity. These could possibly include calculating the waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), Waist circumference (WCR) and Skinfold thickness.7 together these allows for a more accura te representation of a patients physical status, allowing to charge for medical treatment accordingly, if that path were to be taken. It is clear that any attempt to find a solution to this question brings up series of arguments and counter points which negate and nullify each other, and instead of establishing a concrete plan of action, it would seem that the wisest and safest bet would be to sit on the fence. My personal opinion on the matter would be to increase the tax of unhealthy foods and make healthier foods readily available and at an affordable price as well as pushing for a more active lifestyle, something akin to the change4life scheme recently set up by the government. Though this isnt without flaws, it certainly seems to reach a form of middle ground in term of ethics and equality. One of the main aims of the NHS was to treat all patients who pay tax, so forcing a section of people to pay more, regardless of whether or not the condition is self inflicted, opposes its key ideologies as well as being highly discriminatory. My proposed plan of action is certainly more subdued and the benefits of which wo uld only be realised after a longer period of time, however, it strikes a fair balance between staying true to the NHS philosophy, equality for all an attempt to treat obesity and healthy lifestyle. The report should be similar in overall style to the topic discussed in Nelsons Issue II (Human Organ Transplantation) above. Another example for style could be a Scientific American article (e.g. How breast milk protects newborn (December, 1995) by J. Newman, pp58-61). The essay should cover the basic science, including recent developments and ongoing research, but should focus on examination of the ethical, social and legal issues related to the topic. 1.More than a million anti-obesity prescriptions were issued in England in the last financial year at a cost of  £47million. It means about 88,000 people could be on a course of treatment. http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/news/article-23406735-pills-not-the-answer-to-obesity-says-top-doctor.do 2. http://www.nhs.uk/NHSEngland/thenhs/nhshistory/Pages/NHShistory1948.aspx 3. http://www.nhs.uk/NHSEngland/thenhs/nhshistory/Pages/NHShistory1948.aspx http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/8012588.stm 4. http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/diabetes-type2/Pages/Introduction.aspx 5. Bouchard 1994 6. http://www.healthcarerepublic.com/news/934442/Cost-obesity-NHS-England-rise-62-billion/ Acs  : 9781845425005 , obesity, business and public policy. 7. Tomlinson 8. brock 9. truth mental illness: 9780757301070 10. http://www.who.int/infobase/report.aspx?rid=118iso=GBRDef_Code=cd.0701Survey_Year_End=2005genGraphButton=Generate+Graph 11. http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Coronary-heart-disease/Pages/Introduction.aspx?url=Pages/What-is-it.aspx red: expand blue: unsure

Borgmann’s Proposal to Reform Technology Essay -- Philosophy Albert Bo

Borgmann’s Proposal to Reform Technology Albert Borgmann follows the general project by Heidegger to see how technology has harmful effects on humanity and to determine how it can be reformed. Borgmann shares Heidegger’s view that modern technology is starkly different from premodern technology in its pattern of disclosing the world to human beings. Borgmann agrees that a sort of ethical reform must be undertaken to limit technological ways of living from dominating the lives of individuals and to keep technology in its place. His proposal for a direction of reform first takes cues from Heidegger but then asserts the need for different tactics. First, we look at Borgmann’s chapter "Focal Things and Practices." Here he names the things that matter in directing human lives "focal." Focal things contribute to the direction and ordering of one’s life in a productive way, and they disclose the world and illuminate the context of themselves and their related life activities. He actually uses a lot of verbs to convey the sense of focus with which he is concerned, so no one terse definition is given. Borgmann agrees with Heidegger that the simple kinds of things are those that focus a gathering of information about the world and benefit human beings by highlighting important life concerns, though he thinks that Heidegger sees the use of these things as too much an escape from technology rather than an affirmation of it. These simple, focal things are premodern objects, such as Heidegger’s example of an earthen jug, or even activities. The jug gathers and discloses the world because it is made of the earth and is used to store wine from grapes that grow in the earth; furthermore, the jug is used in the human context of tradition, ... ... things and practices are without being misguided by the level of a thing’s technological complexity. It seems that if focal practices engage certain elements but technology does not in principle exclude those elements, both of which Borgmann agrees, then it is not necessary to maintain Borgmann’s criticism of modern technological things. His concern is the pattern in which technology is currently engaged, and he has not at all made it clear how the troublesome disunities and commodities are necessarily related to the products of modern technology. We need to find the essential features of focal concerns and apply them to a reform proposal without Borgmann’s intermediate complications. Bibliography Borgmann, Albert. "Focal Things and Practices." Philosophy of Technology. Ed. Robert C. Scharff and Val Dusek. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2003. 293-312.